Historicism and the Vacuum of Responsibility

Historicism cannot be easily defined. In what has been called “crisis of historicism” (Iggers, 1995, p. 129), it’s meaning has changed widely over time. Attempting to create a human science that was distinct from the natural sciences, early philosophers used it to emphasize the importance of historical context in understanding historical events (Reynold, 1999, p. 276). Today, it refers to the theory that history contains universal laws that can be used to predict the future (Popper, 2011, p. 7). Believing that history is predetermined leads to the abdication of responsibility for societal contributions, in turn creating room for authoritarian regimes to take control.

The historicist searches through history to find patterns that govern development. If he is successful, he uses his findings to predict the future. The historicist may then use his predictions as a base for his political ideology, advising followership on the actions necessary to bring about the “good society”. Within a historicist’s political ideology, the individual is clay molded by the developmental laws of mankind. Believing that history is determined absolves us of our capacity to change it, laying the ground for an autocracy.

Karl Popper came up in early 20th century Vienna, impacted by thinkers such as Freud, Einstein, and Marx. Popper became interested in the differences between Freudian psychoanalysis and Einsteinian physics, which became the basis of his later work. While he was Marxist in his early years, observing the ease with which his colleagues accepted fascist ideology led him to question his beliefs (Thornton, 2018). In his work, Popper suggests that in leading individuals to believe their future is predestined, historicism plays a role in the acceptance of totalizing regimes.

Popper worked within the Philosophy of Science. Comparing the theories of Freud and Einstein, he found the critical lens observed in Einstein’s theories was absent from Freud’s. Concerned with the scientific claims of Freud, he thought they should be capable of being proved wrong. In an effort to separate science from pseudo-science, Popper (2010, p. 66) introduced the concept of falsification. Without the ability to falsify claims of truth, we are susceptible to those who profess to know a path to a better future.

Popper set out to find the seeds of totalitarian thought in the history of humankind. His inquiry brought him back to Ancient Greece. In The Republic, Plato advocated for control of the individual within society. For Plato, the common man impulsive man should not have a say in societal matters. It is in the societies’ best interest to follow a leader who displays temperance, judgement and wisdom - a “philosopher-king” (Williamson, 2018, p. 402). Popper (2011, p. 20) highlights Plato’s political thought as an example of historicism. The assumption of inevitable autocracy belittles the individual’s sense of autonomy, leaving us less likely to take responsibility for our own lives.

Popper viewed historicist ideologies as potentially devastating. In his view, tribalism lays at the foundation of historicism, which holds the individual as subordinate to the group. Combined with historicisms’ deterministic outlook, tribalism lays the ground for overarching narratives— Christ’s Second Coming, Marx’s class revolt, Hitler’s Master Race —to take hold. If morality ultimately lies in the individual, it erodes in proportion to the size of the group. Violence and bloodshed may be justified if a group believes their goal is validated. The tribe does away with individual autonomy, replacing it with a responsibility to the goals of the group.

Historicist ideas can be seen in the ideology of Karl Marx, known as Marxism. Marx claimed that history has to be interpreted by classes struggling for economic supremacy. In claiming that human history consists of fixed economic stages— feudal, capitalist, and communist, respectively —he suggested that a citizens’ life is preordained: their lot in life is a consequence of their relationship to the means of production in a society (Urbach, 1985, p. 133). Marx goes so far as to suggest the inevitability of a communistic revolution (Cohen et al., 1986, p. 65), advising the working class on proper conduct toward this end. In suggesting that the working class are destined to overthrow the ruling class, Marxism in part justifies leaders in taking action to bring about the communistic future.

Believing that history is predestined can have devastating consequences. One of the most significant examples being 20th century Russia. Influenced in part by Marxism (Lovell, 1984, p. 119), Vladimir Lenin led a coup against the Russian government. While initially stating that a revolution must be peaceful, later stating that a violent revolution was necessary to bring in communism in place of capitalism (Schaff, 1973, p. 267). A tribalistic regime, known as Marxism-Leninism, was imposed by Lenin’s Bolshevik Party, systematizing the punishment of those who opposed their vision (Lynch, 2013, pp. 18-20). It is estimated that no fewer than 20 million people died under the rule of Lenin and his successors (Courtois, 1999, p. 4). Lenin’s actions seem to be in part motivated by a sense that communistic society was unavoidable.

By turning his scientific lens on the claims of Marxism, Popper put forward that Karl Marx’s theory of history was invalid. Like Freudian psychoanalysis, Marx’s ideas do not meet the requirements of falsification (Thornton, 2018). Societal evolution is a dynamic process that cannot be explained by a single law, like class struggle. The law of history described by Marx is a trend, and the trend is not destiny. In applying his concept of falsification to ideologies such as Marxism, Popper separates the unverifiable knowledge claims of the historicist from the verifiable facts of the scientist. 

Popper proposes liberal democracy as a solution to the problems he saw emanating from historicist ideologies. While an authoritarian society encourages collective subservience to leadership within a society, democratic society encourages criticism of leadership (Popper, 2011, pp. 368-9). Institutions should leave room for self-correction, where the ruled can criticize the policies of their rulers, implementing slow, progressive change without bloodshed (Kenny, 2010, p. 975). Popper’s solution entails putting responsibility for societies’ evolution back into the hands of its citizens, protecting against the vacuum of responsibility that historicist ideologies can create.

Historicism can have potentially disastrous consequences. Popper’s inquiry into the roots of totalitarianism suggested that historicism forms the base of totalitarian regimes like that seen in Soviet Russia. The vacuum of responsibility created when individuals believe the future is fixed leaves room for authoritarian regimes to take control. Taken together, these conclusions suggest that liberal democracy, where we are free to challenge the policies of those in power, could in part shield us from the dangers associated with historicist ideologies.

References

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Courtois, S. (1999). The Black Book of Communism. Harvard University Press.

Iggers, G. (1995). Historicism: The History and Meaning of the Term. Journal of the History of Ideas, 56(1), 129-152.

Kenny, A. (2010). A New History of Western Philosophy. Oxford University Press.

Lovell, D. (1984). From Marx to Lenin. Cambridge University Press.

Lynch, M. (2013). Origins and development of authoritarian and single-party states. Hodder Education.

Popper, K. (2010). The Logic of Scientific Discovery. Routledge.

Popper, K. (2011). The Open Society and It’s Enemies. Routledge.

Reynolds, A. (1999). What is historicism?. International studies in the philosophy of science, 13(3), 275-287.

Schaff, A. (1973). Marxist theory on revolution and violence. Journal of the History of Ideas, 34(2), 263-270

Thornton, S. (2018). Karl Popper (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved December 09, 2020, from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/popper

Urbach, P. (1985). Good and Bad Arguments Against Historicism. In G. Currie, & A. Musgrave, Karl Popper and the Human Sciences. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.

Williamson, T. (2008). The good society and the good soul: Plato’s Republic on leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 19(4), 397-408.